'Only mankind says prayers or needs to'

If the entire history of planet Earth could be measured in the form of twenty-four clock, then human existence and tenure would fail to fill the last second of the last minute on that clock. The era of dinosaurs, lasting sixty five million years, would occupy far greater space. During the last ice age, the human population of the entire World might have been less than ten thousand and explains why so many DNA results are measured in hundreds of thousands rather than millions. Irrespective of current skin colour, race or creed, we are more alike than different and share common ancestry with a small number of people who survived the Ice Age.

In common with many animal species, our ancestors were nomadic and tribal and keenly aware of the three basic needs for survival namely food, water and shelter. Each tribe foraged for food, water and shelter wherever it could be found. As such, certain locations were deemed more favourable than others and where conflict between tribes competing to control such locations were inevitable and similar to many battles fought by many animal species in the wild today. Many lesser attractive attributes of the family pet dog, descended from wolves, and cats still inherit genetic code established long before this period. In the case of mankind, however, development adopted a different path and one making us significantly different to others in the animal kingdom.

Historical research into the period suggests that our ancestors may have fashioned tools and weapons during the Ice Age in order to survive and lived in caves. Paintings and drawings on cave walls have survived many centuries and illustrated some aspects of life at that time. Collectively, they suggest a desire for permanent residence and hint about how they lived. Many of these paintings have been discovered deep underground where sunlight was absent and suggests our ancestors had discovered how to generate light by means of fire. Such carvings and drawings also suggest how our common ancestors were hunters of other species using crudely made spears and stone knives to attack and kill their quarry. Such conclusions are backed up by the discovery of stone-age tools and weapons in which pieces of shaped flint were attached to wooden shafts. It's likely they also knew how to catch fish and seals in a manner akin to Eskimo tribes of northern regions in current times.

Our common ancestors were hunters and gatherers yet one of the greatest transitions in history was when mankind began to understand the cycles of nature and learned how to grow crops. Of course, such investment also meant defence of the land and the need to defend territory against foragers and competitors. The ultimate expression of such defence demanded union with others caught in a similar situation, and where an elected leader could command defence forces stronger than any perceived enemy. It was the beginning of what we would now regard as fixed boundaries and national states with the nation state of Egypt exhibiting common traits with later variants of democratic government, common language and written script.

Amazingly, one of the oldest surviving written records is not religious in nature but rather the wine list of a Mesopotamian merchant and showing how international trade was established at an early stage of human development. Phoenician ships followed the Mediterranean coastline for centuries, stopping at many ports on their voyages, buying here and selling here, and in the secure knowledge that no land had been entirely blessed with universal abundance and where shortages could be resolved in exchange for profit. It was Phoenician colonists who established the City of Carthage near to the current capital city of modern day Tunisia and the merchants of that city grew rich from an International Moorish Empire extending from the Middle East, across North Africa and Southern Europe and including the Iberian peninsula now better known as Spain and Portugal.

Foundations and Empires

From an early stage, Arab traders and scholars became more knowledgeable about the World than their counterparts in Europe. Arab traders and explorers mapped vast areas of the World and returned to Mediterranean shores with highly prized merchandise originating in the Far East. Chief among these were spices and which helped preserve meat in ways better than salt. Silk was another luxury and both spices and silk were expensive. Arab sailors may have been some of the first mariners to employ trigonometry as an aid to navigation and Arab scholars chose a decimal number system in place of the cumbersome Roman mix of letters to represent values. Algebra is an Arab word named after an Arab scholar and even pseudo-sciences like astrology, still read by millions every day in current times found root in the Arab exploration of science. Arab scholars were also the first to realise the World was round and in sharp contrast to early European belief that the Earth was flat and if you sailed far enough, it was possible to sail off the edge! It was to be centuries later before 'western civilisations' came to accept this knowledge as factual.

It was a Arab scientist named Ptolomy who is typically credited with the discovery of our World being spherical. In the City of Luxor in Southern Egypt, he heard about a deep well located about eleven hundred miles north of the city and where, on just one day of the year, the people could peer down and see the entire diameter of the water pool below them. At other times, part of the view was concealed by varying degrees of shadow. The only way this could happen was if the Sun was directly overhead at that time. He arranged to confirm the story about the well while placing a carefully measured, vertically erect, wooden pole in Luxor on the same day. If the Sun was directly overhead above Luxor then the pole would fail to caste a shadow - only it did - and proving that while the Sun was directly overhead above the well, the same could not be said for Luxor during the same period of time. Ptolemy measured the lengths of the shadows and used mathematics, not only proved the World was round but how big it was and with fairly astounding accuracy! This and many other barely creditable feats of Arab Science were collected and placed within a great library at Alexandria in Northern Egypt and where sadly, a lot of this wisdom was lost when it burned down and perhaps slowed progress of humanity by many years.

In the years preceding the lifetime of Ptolemy, the former alliances of tribes had given way to city states and ultimately establishing national boundaries in which leaders became Kings and supported by a government system in which taxation became an essential part to pay for the common defence of the land by means of well equipped and highly trained armies. Among these fledgling states, Eygpt quickly rose to become a regional superpower with considerable political influence on near neighbours. At its height, Eygptian Pharohs commanded the building of massive structures employing thousands of people for many years; structures like the massive temple at Carnac and the pyramidic shaped burial chambers, designed to last forever to protect the body of one moved into the afterlife. The choice of a pyramid shape wasn't accidental because in engineering terms, this is the best shape to withstand sandstorms and retain structural integrity over a prolonged period of time and the fact these buildings remain largely intact today illustrates a degree of knowledge and wisdom seldom accredited to people of that time period.

About three hundred years before the birth of Our Savior Jesus Christ, King Philip of Macedon finally managed to unite the former city states of Athens, Sparta and others to create the nation state of Greece but in the wake of his sudden death, the union began to fracture. His son, Alexander (later known as Alexander the Great), managed to hold the union together but was not content with this achievement and began a military campaign to establish one of the first great Empires of the World. In a lifetime lasting less than thirty years, Alexander raged war against the Arab states, including Egypt, and established an empire reaching almost as far as modern day India. His empire was short-lived and melted away quickly after his death yet much of the Greek influence forcibly injected into history comes from this period of time. Much of what we understand about the ancient pre-Christ era also comes from this source.

The Roman Empire

In the immediate centuries before Jesus Christ was born, the Iberian Peninsula imported many goods from the Merchant City Of Carthage (located in Modern Day Tunisia), and where many of these traders had a virtual monopoly and made handsome profits from their overseas investments. As such, they were less than happy when a small town, named Rome, and located in Italy began establishing trading posts in the Iberian peninsula and threatened Carthaginian monopoly and wealth. Carthaginian traders protested and began to attack these 'Roman' outposts and attacked ships with supplies intended for these 'retail outlets'. In response, the people of Rome put highly trained soldiers aboard their ships to defend against piracy while their foreign outposts became defended by soldiers numbering one hundred and led by an officer known as a Centurion.

The Roman decision to fortify outposts and their ships infuriated traders in Carthage and a man named Hannibal was appointed with the task of leading an army against Rome with a view to total destruction. Hannibal's army landed in the Iberian peninsula and marched with elephants North, across the Alpine mountain ranges, and South into Italy. A Roman Army, designed to meet this threat, was hastily formed in response but fled the battlefield in their first encounter upon seeing the elephants charging towards them. Many retreated into a marshland area and where the elephants could not follow. In time, they built their own community and created the city now called Venice and where, in time, it would establish it's own monopoly in the trade of spices and silks from the Far East.

Hannibal's victories did not last long. Rome quickly recovered and rebuilt its army with a view to expanding its trading influence despite Carthaginian opposition. It was the beginning of a Roman Empire that would overthrow national armies and governments in many theatres of conflict. The City of Carthage itself was destroyed in the Third Punic War in 146BC then later rebuilt to become the third most important trading city in the Roman Empire.

In 55BC, Roman influence extended throughout Europe and Roman soldiers stepped on British soil for the first time. Their initial invasions were successful and permitted rebuilding and improvement of many existing towns and cities in Southern England yet they remained in fear of rebellion. That rebellion, when it came, was led by Queen Boudica of the Iceni tribe whose voluntary army sacked Colchester and London, only to be soundly beaten soon afterwards. Like Cleopatra before her, Boudica chose death rather than capture and dishonour.

As Roman soldiers ventured north through Britain, they encountered increasingly wily, intelligent and fierce resistance and where, at the height of Roman Power, one of the seven Roman Legions ventured north then simply disappeared with their fate remaining uncertain. News of the event sent shockwaves throughout the Empire and despite a few lonely outposts being established at Fort William and Fort Augustus deep inside the territory of Caledonia, it became clear to Roman leaders that the region now called Scotland would never submit and be a part of the Empire. In 122AD, the Roman Emperor Hadrian visited Britain and accepted the limits of Roman Power. By then, seeds of insurrection and rebellion had already begun to weaken the Empire in many regions and Hadrian probably sought to slow this decline by establishing firm borders. In Britain, he ordered the construction of a stone defensive and fortified wall crossing seventy-four miles from the Tyne Estuary to the Solway Firth. It was a huge undertaking and took six years to build. In 142AD, the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius sought expand northward by building a new wall crossing sixty-three miles between the River Clyde in the West and the Firth of Forth to the East. It took twelve years to build and mostly comprised earthen ramparts and wooden rather than stone constructions. Less than twenty years later, it was abandoned and although attempts were made to resurrect and repair it, the power and influence of Rome was waning. In Germania, another whole legion had simply wandered into the mist and disappeared and while the warlord Attila the Hun pressed the underbelly of the Empire and accepted wealthy tributes in exchange for not attacking Roman interests. In Roman eyes, civilisation beyond the extent of their empire was barbaric and backward and yet, within Roman society, unwanted children were thrown onto rubbish tips to fend for themselves; an act which would been seen as abhorrent within Celtic societies and where family values were much closer.

The life and death of Jesus Christ was a turning point for the Roman Empire and the entire World. Prophets had predicted the arrival of a Messiah who would deliver the people from tyranny and perhaps many imagined a military rather than spiritual leader and yet Jesus was much more. On observation of a Roman coin, Jesus pronounced, 'Give back to Caesar what belongs to Caesar' and had this been fully understood at the time then Rome might have inherited a pile of worthless coins! The rejection of a trading system driven by Romans could have split the empire more surely than a dozen powerful armies! As it was, it took time for the message of Christianity to spread and infiltrate throughout the Empire and beyond and claiming the lives of many. In 73AD, Christian zealots occupied the fortress of Masada and the Roman response was swift. After initial attacks failed, they built a thirty-foot ramp that eventually permitted entry into the fort. The Hollywood portrayal of this event suggests a ramp much larger but both actuality and film accurately describe the outcome and in which all defenders committed mass suicide rather than surrender to the Roman Empire. In the closing years of the Roman Empire, the Catholic variant of Christianity was adopted as the 'officially recognised' religion of the Empire; a decision which stills echoes down the centuries and into modern times.

In the third century, Emperor Diocletian chose to split the empire into western and eastern regions and where elected officials were virtual emperors in their own right. In the year 476AD, leader of the Western Empire, Romulus Augustus, was forced to abdicate and the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the wake of this event. By contrast, the eastern part of the Roman Empire remained largely stable and survived a further thousand years until the City of Constantople was sacked by Ottoman Turks in 1453AD and during which time they had established a smaller part of the former empire as their own.

By then, religious differences had begun to play a major part in the social differences leading to conflict and war, but for now, western nations of the former Roman Empire had to endure a difficult time often referred to as the 'Dark Ages'.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles

As Roman influence departed from British shores, unified government fell apart with many regions reverting to former boundaries or attempting to establish new kingdoms although precise details is lacking in many cases since few records were kept or have survived to this day. Late in the ninth century, however, hand written books known as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles began to be circulated to monestaries throughout Southern England and then further afield. The were begun around the year 890AD during the reign of King Alfred the Great and concluded around 1124AD during the reign of King Stephen. Some editions, however, remained independently updated until 1154AD. Today, there are only nine surviving copies, seven of which are located in the British Library. It seems likely that King Alfred may have played an important role in establishing the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. Under his rule, taxation income was divided into three parts namely church, defence and education. Since education was often the preserve of the Church too, the Church became a wealthy and influential organisation in political affairs during this period.

Although the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles can hardly be regarded as one hundred per cent accurate or unbiased, they still provide great insight into what was happening in England during through latter part of the first millennium. We know from this and other texts about the major problems of Viking invasion and settlement causing King Alfred to respond with the successful application of military force yet realising their were limits to his ability. Following the Battle of Ethandun in 878AD in which he defeated the Viking army of Guthrum, he reached a treaty in which the boundary of his kingdom would become known as Mercia and encompass all lands in English Midlands, Wales and South England. What is now East Anglia and Northumbria would be Danelaw under Viking settlement. They key to this agreement was they should live in harmony. The agreement worked for a time and the City of Jorvik (now called York) became a highly successful commercial interest that was soon attracted by a fresh wave of Viking invasions in the wake of Alfred's death in 899AD and when Edward the Elder became King.

Years of conflict had taken its toll on the Danelaw state and to such an extent that they found themselves incapable of adequate defence of their state and sought help from their neighbour. Edward the Elder agreed but on terms whereby Danelaw renounced former sovereignty with Denmark and Danelaw became a formal part of England under his rule. The deal was not universally accepted in Danelaw but in 924AD, his son Athelstan, invaded the former Danelaw states and defeated the opposition once and for all time and ensuring his place in history as the first true King of All England. Some even claim he was the first ruler of all Britain but that is much harder to substantiate and especially when records like the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suddenly become strangely quiet during the period of his reign and where documentary evidence and detail is recorded elsewhere.

St Alban's Cross - Flag of Anglo-Saxon Mercia in England

It seems does seem likely though that he secured allegiance with King Constantine II of Scotland albeit in ignorance that the title conveyed far less we might consider as valid in modern times. Centuries later, King Robert The Bruce (de Bruge), and in the wake of his great defining victory at the Battle of Banockburn wrote down advice for future Kings of Scotland and advised them to watch over Clan Chiefs whose influence extended across far more territory populated with lesser numbers of people. In short, he was, perhaps, openly admitting to the limitations of his own Kingship and influence and maybe why so many of the oldest churches, monuments and castles commissioned by an ancient government of the period now lie within the central belt of modern day Scotland and rather than different locations scattered among the northern highlands.

According to myth, Athelstan met the 'King of Scotland' in the town of Abernethy, of biscuit fame, located in the Perth and Kinross Area of Scotland, and only a few miles outside the regional boundaries of Fife, and where Constantine swore allegiance to an English King! It is supposed to happened close to the 'Round Tower' but this is pure fiction because the tall stone tower was built long after both were long dead and buried.

It remains uncertain whether King Owen I of Strathclyde ever agreed with Athelstan's and chose either to accept or reject them but it seems the latter might explain why Athelstan raised an army and attacked the Kingdom of Strathclyde in around 933 or 934AD. It was an action securing universal scorn from friends and enemies alike. As a consequence, a new alliance was formed between the Celts and Vikings and where they collectively faced Athelstan's Anglo-Saxon army at the Battle of Brunanburgh.

According to several accounts, the ferocity, fighting and bloodshed marked previously unknown and depraved levels of killing and butchery in the history of warfare. Many prominent lords and nobles died in the clash yet some are named as having being executed soon afterwards. Five Kings of Celtic tribes and seven Nordic Earls are alleged to have met their fate on that day and yet the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles are strangely subdued as regards this highly crucial event!

Whether true or not, the Battle of Brunanbugh established the concept of a leading and superior English National Army within the British Isles, and which forced Celtic and Nordic races to retreat North and West towards the relative security of Cyrmu, (Wales), Hibernia (Ireland) or Alba (Scotland) and where differing histories would be related to English aims of expansion and aspiration. The unified tribes of England became a major and highly respected force, not just in Britain but in Europe as a whole. In the year 1066, however, King Harold Godwinson found himself in a difficult situation concerning Viking raids in the North and rumours concerning possible invasion from Normandy. In haste, he led his army north and defeated the invaders but then heard news of the Normandy invasion in the South and rushed south to meet this new threat. On Senlac Hill, about six miles from Hastings, his exhausted army fought bravely but during a crucial moment in the battle, Harold Godwinson was shot in the eye by an arrow and died in agony - an event depicted by the famous Bayeux Tapestry and shown below.

William's invasion of England proved to be the last successful invasion of Britain and he was naturally keen to discover what his new realm had in terms of wealth and taxation. In 1068, William ordered the creation of a hand-written record describing the land he had conquered in great detail and where families, circumstances and livestock were meticulously detailed. Today, we know this as the Domesday Book where copies have survived and illustrate the kind of country William inherited after the Battle of Hastings and where a stricter order of government was imposed and where new castles, with new lords and nobles, were created to ensure the King's will and laws. It is alleged he replaced all Saxon noblemen with those of Norman birth within four years. William the Conquerer as he was known, died after falling from a horse in 1087.

During the Norman succession, one name stands out - Richard the Lionheart, or Couer de Lion, and who also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Ireland, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Anjou, Count of Nantes and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. At age 16, Richard was already commanding his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father, King Henry II. Richard was also a central Christian commander during the Third Crusade, effectively leading the campaign after the departure of Philip Augustus, and scoring considerable victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin. While he spoke very little English and spent very little time in his Kingdom, preferring to use it as a source of revenue to support his armies, he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects and he remains one of the very few Kings of England remembered by his epithet, not number, and remains an enduring, iconic figure in England. In the reign of Richard the Lionheart, the English army came to be regarded as the best in Europe.

Scottish Wars Of Independence

In 1286, King Alexander III of Scotland had recently married and after attending to business in Edinburgh, he was naturally keen anxious to return to his bride residing at Kinghorn in Southern Fife even though it meant crossing the Firth of Forth on a very stormy night. He was advised to remain until next day but the King was insistent and successfully crossed the choppy waters between South Queensferry and North Queensferry. In eager anticipation, he then rode his horse quickly through the darkness and at such speed and left his escort far behind. Somehow, in the darkness, he fell from his horse and down a cliff at a point between Burntisland and Kinghorn. He was killed in the fall and none of his children could succeed him. His death left a political vacuum with several claimants to the throne stepping forward but a committee decided his granddaughter was rightful heir. The 'Maid of Norway' then just seven years old, began to make the voyage to Scotland but died en route in 1290. Once again, several claimants to the throne emerged and Scotland was threatened with the possibility of civil war. In desperation, they turned towards King Edward the First of England and asked him to arbitrate. Edward obliged and John Balliol became King of Scotland. Edward then began to undermine Balliol in every way he could and Balliol eventually renounced his homage to Edward in 1296. By then, Scots typically referred to Balliol as 'Toom Tabard' or the 'empty coat' and few had confidence in him. An English army marched into Berwick-Upon-Tweed less than a month later and soldiers slaughtered whole families in their homes. A hastily formed Scots army was beaten at the Battle of Dunbar soon afterwards and Edward the First accepted homage from around eighteen hundred Scottish nobles while Balliol hid at Strathcathro near Montrose.

Upon orders of King Edward of England, the coronation 'Stone of Destiny' was shipped to London but legend has it that the true 'Stone of Destiny' was hidden while another was presented in its place. From Edward's viewpoint though, it must have seemed like the issue was settled in his favour with Scotland annexed as part of his rule but it was only a beginning in the Scottish Wars Of Independence. There was one name he had probably never heard of during this invasion of Scotland and that name was William Wallace.

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Related Articles In This Series

Foundations & Empires
Hadrian's Wall & the UK
Wallace, Bruce & Banockburn
Exploration & Armada
The English Civil War

Civil War & the USA
USA - Global Superpower
Capitalism & Tsushima
The RMS Titanic

Henry George Kendall, Dr Crippen and the Empress of Ireland
World War One
The League Of Nations
World War Two
Battles of Atlantic, Coral Sea & Midway
Leyte Gulf, Stalingrad & the Atomic Bomb

End of Empire
The Cold War
Decline of British Industry
The Computer Revolution
British Motor Manufacturing Blues
Television, Video and Satellite Broadcasting
The Falkland Isles Crisis
Margaret Thatcher - Iron Lady

New Labour
Invasion of Iraq
Devolution and the Scottish Parliament
A New Kind of Business
Standing On Higher Ground - Killer Satellites
Credit Crunch

William Wallace

By all accounts, William Wallace, was a man of large stature and strength and whose hatred of the English occupation was well-known. Not much is known about his early life and various stories provide possible reasons why he chose to take up arms against the English soldiers garrisoned in Scotland. Some suggest it was in response to his father's death at the hands of English soldiers, another says he was challenged by English soldiers who wanted all the fish he had caught that day. According to this story, he offered them half of his catch but they insisted on having it all. In response, he felled the first soldier with his fishing rod before seizing the fallen soldier's sword and attacking the others with it. Another story carries a romantic attachment and desire for revenge following her death. Whatever the provocation, Wallace was suddenly a criminal and on the run from English overseers. In subsequent years, he achieved notoriety in a number of raids in Ayrshire and joined with Andrew Moray in a growing desire for revolution sweeping across the Scottish nation.

In 1297, Wallace led a heavily outnumbered and less well equipped Scottish army to victory at Stirling Bridge but there were those in Scotland who feared for their own circumstances and he was betrayed one year later when the Scots army was badly beaten and defeated at Falkirk. Wallace was captured soon afterwards, taken to London and where he was tried and convicted on a charge of treason even though he had never given or sworn homage to King Edward. In full public view, Wallace was hung until near dead and then his body drawn behind a cart before his body was sliced with differing parts being trailed through London and elsewhere to illustrate what traitors could expect under Edward's rule.

Although brevity forbids details here, Edward I faced great opposition in Wales around this same time but after much investment in castles and armed force, Wales became integrated into England by the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 and 1301 and whereby future heirs to the British Throne would first become the 'Prince of Wales' and crowned at Caernarfon Castle with Edward III being the only exception to date. By contrast, Scotland would prove to be a more difficult proposition.

King Robert The Bruce

While English soldiers occupied all major fortifications in Scotland, there were many ready to join together and unite against a common foe and ready to follow the leadership of a man named Robert de Bruge latter anglicized to Robert the Bruce. In some cases, the unlawful murder of William Wallace had polarised opinion in Scotland rather than engender the fear desired by the King of England. Robert Bruce was crowned King of Scotland in 1306 and his first encounter with the English army was disastrous.

At the Battle of Methven, near Perth, his small army was surprised and almost entirely eliminated. According to legend, he hid in a cave and was ready to give up but then saw a spider rebuilding its damaged web and was apparently inspired by the tenacity of this small creature to keep trying even though direct conflict with the finest trained and equipped army in Europe appeared suicidal. Despite this, he elected to continue the struggle yet chose to avoid direct conflict with an English army on a single battlefield. Instead, he reverted to what modern day historians might call guerilla tactics or even terrorism; hitting hard and fast at vulnerable targets and infrastructure before retreating and hiding once more. Smaller castles in the North were compelled to surrender and news of this quickly traveled south to London and Edward I's health was failing. The siege of Stirling Castle, located in the very heart of Scotland, became a crucial issue and where the government overseer of the castle demanded help from King Edward. In response, King Edward I of England wanted to respond firmly but died before the army needed could be assembled and sent North. His son, Edward II, completed the work of assembling the army and gathered the finest and best noblemen and best trained knights of the English realm. The assembled English army for this battle was one of the largest ever for a single campaign in Scotland and included approximately eight hundred Welsh archers, highly regarded as the best in the World at that time. The English were supremely confident that the issue of Scottish Independent Rule would be vanquished forever and that Scotland would be annexed in the same way as Wales had been at the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284. In truth, it was a battle the King of Scotland was reluctant to partake in and perhaps feared a repeat of Methven and where he had been forced to flee for his own safety. On that occasion, they'd been taken by surprise but this time, they had plenty warning and had laid pot traps in many areas - traps whereby the weight of a warhorse's hoof would cause the leg to descend into a hole and break the leg of animal and unseat the knight on its back.

Shortly before the battle, Sir Henry de Bohun, scouting ahead for the English Army, caught sight of the Scottish King on horseback and charged. At the last moment, King Robert swerved, stood up in the stirrups and brought his battle axe firmly down on the head of the aggressor. The blow shattered de Bohun's helmet and killed him. The handle of King Robert's battle axe also broke and Robert Bruce allegedly lamented the loss of his favourite 'battle axe' than his near encounter with death. At around the same time, the English army, encamped near Edinburgh, were encountering internal problems. In drunken stupor, the Welsh revolted and many were put to the sword.

On Sunday, 23rd June, 1314, the best equipped and trained army in Europe and typically regarded as invincible moved against the Scots in an effort to relieve the siege of Stirling Castle. On this occasion, however, the Scots had carefully chosen the location of battle between the flatland where the River Forth met convergence with the Bannock Burn and meaning deep ditches and water on two sides to the rear of the English position. On that day, the legend of the undefeated warhorse faded into legend as previous experience at Falkirk was applied and where Scots had learned how a skiltern, a square of men with long wooden pikes facing outward, could be assembled and defeat the charges of knights riding war horses and move in unison as the battle progressed. Time and again, English warhorses charged against the 'human hedgehogs' but failed to break them. While archers stood firm and inflicted major casualties, their support and protection was abandoned. With loud cries of 'Lay On, They Fail', supporters of the Scots including cooks, tailors and cobblers came over the hill to see what was happening and were mistakenly reported to Edward II as additional and fresh troops ready to join in battle and support the Scottish cause. The English army quickly retreated towards a junction where the Bannockburn meets the River Forth and found itself trapped by deep water left, right and behind, and with enemies charging down on them from the fore. In the melee that followed, some tried to cross while still clad in heavy armour and drowned. Edward II was dragged from the field by his bodyguards and eventually made his escape on board a ship sailing from Dunbar. The Battle of Bannockburn was one of the largest defeats ever faced by an English army and the recovered weapons and materials made Scotland one of the richest nations in a day. Not only that, the underdog had not only beaten the odds but stood ready against future aggression from a largely weakened England and which so many prominent leaders and noblemen had perished. Even now, centuries later, many Scots reject the official musical UK anthem of 'God Save The Queen' and in favour of 'Flower Of Scotland' and which describes this event.

Of course, in the years following this remarkable event, trouble with the 'Auld Enemy' was inevitable and where the title, 'King of Scotland' could rightly be challenged and found wanting. Close to his death, King Robert himself admitted limitations in this respect and advised future kings to remain keenly aware of the power held by Celtic leaders in Northern Scotland. Meanwhile, events elsewhere in the World were about to exert major influences that have lasted to the present day.

The New Age of Exploration

Starting around 790AD, Moors were progressively driven out of the Iberian peninsula in what was called the Reconquista (reconquer) and which lasted approximately 750 years. The Portuguese Reconquista was completed in 1247 under the reign of Alfonso III. The last Arab leader of Grenada surrendered to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492 although Navarre remained separate until 1512. It was in this way, and through the Crusades of the Middle East, that Europeans encountered books, maps and teachings of the Arab people. Arab sailors were regular visitors to India and the Far East from where these traders bought spices and other goods back for sale to people in Europe. In an age before refrigeration, spices helped to preserve meat while adding to its flavour. When Europeans learned of this, demand and prices were high while supply was limited. The trading cities of Genoa and Venice quickly monopolised the spice trade by making a deal with Arab traders and both cities grew rich on the back of the spice trade.

It was a desire to break this monopoly that prompted King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to support an expedition led by Christopher Columbus had suggested that sailing westward might present a more direct route to the 'Spice Islands' and how opening a trade route of this kind would bypass Arab, Genovese and Venetian middlemen with Spain benefiting handsomely. With some knowledge of what became known as 'trade winds', Columbus led his three ships south to Tenerife before turning westward. Despite growing unrest with his crews, Columbus pressed onward and eventually discovered the island of San Salvador in 1492. He never did find the 'Spice Islands' and did not actually reach the American mainland until his later expedition of 1498. In 1522AD, a battered and severely damaged ship with only seventeen men aboard limped into the harbour of Sanlucar de Barrameda in Southern Spain. The ship was called Victoria and was the last remnant of the Magellan expedition that had left Spain three years beforehand. The sailors on board were the first to circumnavigate the World!

The Virgin Queen and the Armada

Wealth and plunder from the 'New World' discoveries came at an exceptionally fortunate time for the federal states of Spain and whose economy was in a dire state when King Philip II ascended the throne. Despite this, Philip felt compelled to champion the cause of Catholicism at a time when the Catholic Church was being increasingly challenged. In 1554, Philip married Mary I of England, a Catholic, and older daughter of Henry VIII, and his father's first cousin. This gave him the titles of King Consort of England and Ireland but "Bloody Mary" as she came to be known in English Protestant lore, died in 1558 without bearing children and before any union could revitalize the Catholic Church in England. The Crown passed to Elizabeth Tudor, daughter of Anne Boleyn and King Henry VIII, and the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. During her life, Elizabeth I never married and had few suitors leading to the name 'Virgin Queen' in some quarters. In sharp contrast to Mary, Elizabeth actively supported the establishment of a Protestant Church of England during her reign. Upon coronation, Elizabeth inherited a series of difficult issues not least concerned with Scotland, France and Spain. She deeply resented the 'Auld Alliance' between Scotland and France and feared invasion of England from the North.

On the death of James V of Scotland, who left no male heirs, Elizabeth exerted great influence to put Mary onto the throne of Scotland and where Mary became known as 'Queen of Scots'. The price of this political manipulation was the Treaty of Edinburgh in which the 'Auld Alliance' was formerly ended and French troops stationed in Scotland were withdrawn to France. In 1565, Mary married Lord Darnley who quickly became unpopular in Scotland and was later suspected of murdering her Italian secretary, David Rizio. Later, Darnley was murdered and most likely by a group led by Lord Bothwell. Incredibly, Mary married Bothwell soon afterwards and seemed to support intrigue and he many rumours of association and preplanned murder. In haste, Elizabeth wrote to Mary and did not mince her words but it was already too late. Lords in Scotland rebelled and Mary was imprisoned at Loch Leven Castle before making her escape to England and where she expected sympathy and support but instead found resistance to her restoration as monarch on practical grounds. Elizabeth realised that putting Mary nack on the Scots throne would be deeply resented and require long-term occupation by English troops. Instead, Mary was incarcerated for the remainder of her life and where her name came to be associated with a number of plots against the English Crown. Mary was eventually beheaded at Fothergay Castle on 8th February 1587 at the age of forty-four. Mary's son, then just eighteen months old, was appointed King James VI of Scotland in 1567 albeit with control in the hands of regents until 1581.

Although depicted as an outstanding leader of a 'Golden Age' in folklore, Elizabeth was sometimes indecisive and cautious when it came to overseas involvement and trade agreements with the Ottoman Empire, and in which tin and lead were key components for armaments, only served to heighten Catholic fears in Europe. In one correspondence, Murad of the Ottoman Empire, entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire. A papal notice issued on February 25, 1570, by Pope Pius V declared, "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be a heretic and releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her and excommunicating any that obeyed her orders. It went further and announced, "She has removed the Royal Council, composed of the nobility of England, and has filled it with obscure men, being heretics." Such circumstances and words prompted King Philip II of Spain to adopt the role of 'defender of the faith' and to address issues concerning the challenges to Catholic faith.

At that time, Spain was a confederation of territories in which the King's Law was filtered down or even rejected by some feudal states. Gathering taxation was a difficult process and Spain became bankrupt several times during his reign and despite the great flow of plundered wealth from the 'New World'. Prices rose a staggering five times during his reign and on the day he died, nearly forty percent of the Spanish Gross Domestic Product (GNP) was needed to meet debts and obligations and most food had to be imported rather than grown locally. Despite this, Philip offered lavish rewards to assassins who might murder those who opposed him and the Catholic faith. One victim was William, Prince of Orange, in the Netherlands while 20,000 ducats (valued at around &pound5 million in terms of modern currency) was offered for the death of Sir Francis Drake, the latter of which was never collected. Drake died of dysentery in 1596, but not before people witnessed one of the greatest battles in naval history in which he was placed second-in-command and contributed greatly towards its success and victory and albeit with the lure of prize-money dictating certain choices.

Philip's zeal to protect the Catholic religion obviously extended to the Great Inquisition where those sustaining remnant Moorish tradition and religion in the Iberian peninsula were typically put to the sword. Maritime raids on the Balearic Islands and the Spanish coastline prompted him to create an alliance known as the 'Holy League' and in 1560, a unified force of two hundred ships carrying thirty thousand soldiers attacked, invaded and occupied the strategically placed island of Djerba. The Ottoman Empire, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, responded by sending a force of one hundred and twenty ships. The resulting conflict was a disaster for the 'Holy League' who lost thirty galleons and thirty other vessels with casualties of around twenty thousand. Five years later, the Ottoman's invaded Malta and enjoyed early success only to be driven from the island soon afterward.

In 1571, the Holy League assembled once again to combat the threat from the Middle East with a fleet of two hundred and six galleys and six galleasses (specially designed large Venetian galleys) and met the Ottoman naval forces of two hundred and twenty two ships offshore near Lipanto in Greece. It was to be the last naval engagement in which warships required men to work oars in order to steer and power the ships. Just six years earlier, the Ottomans had destroyed the last vestige of the Roman Empire when they sacked Constantinople and chose to rely on proven and trusted weapons they had used on that occasion. By contrast, the Holy League had become more experienced and wiser, investing in better armaments, training and communications. The result was a devastating defeat for the Ottoman Empire from which they never fully recovered. It was the moment in history where failures of numerous crusades in previous centuries was redressed and where Western Europe finally overcame the powerful influences exerted by Middle Eastern military and trading power. Above all, Philip could relax and know the Catholic Papal seat in Rome was safe and secure once more.

King Philip II of Spain was never a keen traveler and remained in his domain preferring others to oversee daily management of more distant lands. As King of the Seventeen Provinces often regarded as the Netherlands, he had deep concerns about the sudden rise of Protestant religion in these regions and took steps to quell revolt and rebellion but to no avail as rebels received patchy support from the English Crown and where Elizabeth dithered about full commitment and potential conflict with Spain. In 1581, the majority of states in the Netherlands voted to reject Philip as their lawful King and in 1585, Elizabeth Tudor signed the Treaty of Nonsuch whereby supplies and support for the rebels was guaranteed and allegedly in response to the Treaty of Joinville whereby Spain and France might join forces against England. In response, Philip decreed this bold decision as an act of war and the Anglo-Spanish conflict, largely fought at sea began.

In the first instance, it began with English ships commanded by privateer Captains, sometimes former pirates who had accepted the Queen's pardon in exchange for service to the nation, attacking Spanish 'treasure ships' sailing for Spain from the 'New World' and presenting much to the Crown of England but rarely all of the 'booty' they had captured. It was also the period in which Sir Francis Drake became the first English sailor to circumnavigate the World and occasionally raiding alleged Spanish territory in South America in the process.

With Papal blessing, Philip II of Spain began the task of a 'Great Armada' of ships and with the intention of shipping thirty-thousand troops from the Netherlands onto the shores of England and where huge numbers of Catholic sympathisers would swell the invasion force in considerable number.

Right from the start, however, the project seemed doomed to failure. Intermittent money supply meant purchase of guns from different makers of different caliber meaning different availability of ammunition for different guns. It is alleged that at least one ship sailed with more priests and missionararies on board than gunners familiar with the technologies they were expected to deploy. Commanders of the fleet were ordered to avoid contact with English warships if possible but an event of this size was hard to conceal. In England, a chain of beacons had been installed so that news of the Armada's approach could be relayed to London within hours. Even when the call to action took place, Francis Drake is alleged to have finished a game of bowls before putting to sea and perhaps recognising how the wind and weather would affect the future outcome of the battle.

With expert knowledge of local tides and hazards, experienced seafarers like John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake participated in a series of battles against the Armada in smaller lighter ships and where much of the damage was done to rigging rather than the hulls. By contrast, cannon fire from these ships were hitting solid wood panels of the hulls of Spanish ships. Most Spanish ships escaped the initial confrontation on account of the British fleet returning to reload because they'd run out of ammunition. The Armada headed for port and ready to embark the soldiers for invasion but the sudden introduction of fireships, vessels fueled and deliberately set on fire and sailed into port, created a major state of alarm whereby most ships of the Armada left port in disarray and compelled to obey the wind carrying them into the North Sea and where Spanish Navigators advised against return to the narrow Channel where the Royal Navy of Britain had already demonstrated considerable ability and seapower. As such, Spanish Captains chose a route northward circumnavigating Scotland and Ireland before heading south towards Spain and where some failed to complete the voyage to safety. Many were wrecked on Scottish and Irish coastlines. The Armada had started with 130 ships but only 67 ever returned to safe harbours in Spain.

Eventually, three more Armadas were assembled; two were sent to England in 1596 and 1597, but both also failed; the third (1599) was diverted to the Azores and Canary Islands to fend off raids. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585-1604) was fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were both dead. In England, in 1603, James the Sixth of Scotland and First Of England assumed Kingship of a Unified Britain and despite bitter resentment from the Catholic community. On November 5th 1605, a Catholic plot to murder the King was uncovered and showed how conspirators had planned to detonate a massive charge of explosives beneath the Houses of Parliament. Guy Fawkes, a Dutchman, and other Catholic Sympathisers, were caught or killed in subsequent days. Today, the 'Gunpowder Plot' is still remembered by firework displays and bonfires across the land on November 5th.

James was proclaimed King within hours following the death of Elizabeth and was well received by the people who had feared great difficulty in the wake of her death. This was largely on account of advance planning by the Queen's privy staff and James wisely elected to retain the same Elizabethan structure and personnel during the early years of his reign. James ought to expand international trade using the British East India Company and especially with Japan. He ended the Anglo-Spanish war and helped maintain a country at peace rather than war. Taxes were low during his lifetime but issues with Parliament surfaced from time to time. The 'Magna Carta' documents of 1215, had laid out certain limitations of sovereignty but the Stuart Kings had no desire to accept such documents and insisted upon their 'right to rule under God' and without restraint of any kind. As such, disputes between the King and Parliament became more frequent. In early 1625, King James' health deteriorated sharply and he suffered a stroke before dying a few weeks later. He had kept faith with the people throughout his life yet carried a certain dislike for Parliament, a trait which his successor, Charles I, had inherited.

The English Civil War

Upon his coronation, there were many who prayed the new King would try and restore the respect for monarchy and which had suffered during his fathers reign and with rumours of homosexual behavior and disdain for Parliament. Naturally, the people hoped taxes would remain low but this proved impossible as Charles embarked on a series of humiliating and costly adventures. More than once, he demanded that taxes should be raised but Parliament opposed and blocked him. In a series of political moves, he tried to manipulate Parliament to vote in his favour but many now feared he was trying to replace Parliament and augment absolute power to himself. Forced into a desperate situation, Charles was compelled to accept new agreements by Parliament whereby his power to dissolve it was removed and where he agreed to many concessions. In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against actions by Charles' ministers that were asserted to be abuses of royal power Charles had committed since the beginning of his reign. When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his Catholic Queen, Henrietta Maria, he sought to arrest those who were perceived to be the troublesome on charges of High Treason.

Charles intended to carry out the arrests personally but news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him and the wanted men; John Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig had already slipped away by the time he arrived. Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed force on 4th January 1642, but found that his opponents had already escaped. Having displaced the Speaker, William Lenthall from his chair, the King asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here."

The incident, by itself, brought the monarchy into disrepute and Charles fled London for the North and began to recruit an army while his wife tried to raise funds in Europe. Charles raised his royal standard in Nottingham in 1642 before setting up his own court in Oxford. The prospect of Civil War was now unavoidable. The Battle of Edgehill, fought in 1642, resulted in an inconclusive outcome as did many following battles in 1643 but there was one crucial exception. In 1642, Prince Rupert led a powerful Royalist force to relieve the besieged town of Newcastle. On completion of this task, his massive army withdrew and encamped at Marston Moor late in the day and expected troops of the Duke of Newcastle to join him. Rumours of a powerful Parliament force headed by Oliver Cromwell heading north were rife and they fully expected battle on the morrow rather than that evening.

On arrival, Oliver Cromwell surmised that "an English summer evening is as long as a winter's day" and ordered his troops into battle. The Battle of Marston Moor was disastrous for the Royalist cause and where the North of England fell into the control of the Parliamentarians. Cromwell's insistence upon better trained armies often referred to as the 'New Model Army' eventually helped switch the war in favour of the Parliamentry forces culminating in the Battle of Worcester in 1651 and where capture of King Charles brought the war to an end.

Despite everything that had happened, Cromwell did his best to restore Charles to the role of King but Charles refused to accept the rights and limits of Parliament to determine future policies of the country. Worse still, he sent letters to Scotland and elsewhere requesting aid to raise new armies and restart the war. Scots invaded England but were defeated at Preston. For Cromwell and the Parliamentarians, this was a step too far and King Charles was tried for treason against the people and sentenced to execution. The beheading of King Charles in 1649 sent shockwaves throughout Europe. Never again would a Monarch of Britain be granted absolute power without backing from Parliament!